Specific Outcomes, Human Structure & Development : ANHB 2212.
Note : The "Comments"column largely indicates preliminary background from HB 101 and 102. Where indicated, further detail will be provided with the lecture or lab.
Topic	Outcome	Comments
Introduction	Understand the general plan of the unit with its teaching-learning strategy and philosophy and assessment methods.	For information only.
Early Embryology	Describe the salient features of early embryonic development  : Gametogenesis, fertilisation, implantation, formation of trilaminar embryo and germ layers with their major derivatives, folding of the embryo, divisions of mesoderm and segmentation.	Recapitulation from HB 101 (Reproduction), with some additions.
	Outline the general features of embryonic and foetal periods.
	Correlate developmental landmarks with timeline.	See lecture outline.
Gross Anatomy - Introduction	Demonstrate understanding of essential anatomical terminology.	Recapitulation from HB 101.
	Recognise the gross structural components of the human body. These include : Skin, superficial and deep fascia, muscles, tendons, aponeuroses, blood vessels, nerves, body cavities and internal organs.
Integration	Recognise histological components in gross anatomical structures.	This tutorial also recapitulates HB 101.
Histology - Introduction	Understand the use of the microscope.
	Understand the basic principles of histological processing - emphasis on paraffin sections and H&E staining.	Limited examination as shown in sample questions.
	Describe the structure of a cell and correlate the structure and functions of organelles.	Recapitulation : HB 101
	Recognise cells and their components and extracellular material in histological sections and photomicrographs.
	Demonstrate understanding of histological scale by estimating sizes of selected cells.
	Demonstrate understanding of the terms acidophilia and basophilia and correlate these with possible function of such components.
	Describe the advantages and limitations of the light and electron microscopes.
	Predict three-dimensional patterns of structures from a two-dimensional image of a histological section.	Supplementary exercise only.
	List the four primary tissues and their basic features and functions.	Recapitulation from HB 101.
Connective Tissue	Describe the general features of connective tissue.
	Classify connective tissue.	Overlapping outcomes for two lectures. Details of cartilage growth and comparison between cartilage and bone dealt with in Weeks 12 and 13.
	Summarise the elements of connective tissue matrix and correlate their functions. (Fibres and ground substance; types of fibres with functional correlation, composition and functions of ground substance.)
	Explain the concept of the “principal cell of connective tissue” and its function.
	Explain the terminology used in naming connective tissue cells.
	Describe the types of cells in loose connective (areolar) tissue.
	Explain the concept of fixed and wandering cells in areolar tissue.
	Correlate the functions of areolar tissue on the basis of matrix and cells.
	Describe the features of cartilage matrix and cells.
	Explain functions of cartilage on the basis of its structure.
	Classify cartilage and give examples of sites where they are found.
	Explain the functional correlation between gross and histological structure of connective tissues.
	Recognise connective tissues in general by virtue of abundant matrix and few cells.
	Recognise mesenchymal tissue (umbilical cord) on the basis of the appearance of the matrix.
	Identify types of connective tissue proper on the basis of fibre arrangement.
	Distinguish between muscle and connective tissue fibres and between collagen and elastic fibres on the basis of differential staining; recognise reticular fibres with reticulum stain. (Details of staining techniques not essential, should know the name).	Overlapping with other labs.
	Recognise the fact that elastic elements can occur in the form of sheets rather than fibres.
	Identify and describe connective tissue associated with epithelia (lamina propria, submucosa, dermis).
	Identify white (unilocular) and brown (multilocular) fat cells and adipose tissue.
	Identify three varieties of cartilage, describe their features as seen in histological sections and illustrate with simple line diagrams.
	Illustrate with simple line diagrams the cells and fibres of areolar tissue.
Vertebral column	Describe the extent and regions of the vertebral column.
	Identify regions of the vertebral column on an articulated skeleton.
	Explain primary and secondary curvatures of the vertebral column.
	Describe the parts of a generalised vertebra with functional correlations.
	Describe salient features of regional vertebrae.
	Identify parts of a generalised vertebra and features of regional vertebrae.
	Recognise the atlas, axis and L5 as atypical vertebrae.
	Describe the joints between vertebrae with special reference to the parts of the intervertebral disc.
	Identify the joints between vertebrae and their ligaments, parts of the intervertebral disc.
	Outline the basic concepts of movements of the vertebral column : limitation of movement between individual vertebrae, motion segment, summation over the entire column and special terms used.
	Summarise the muscles of the vertebral column. (Description in terms of groups, with concepts of superficial and deep muscles, long and short muscles.)
	Identify the muscles of the vertebral column as groups.
	Outline the development of the vertebral column.
	Outline the functional implications of the column in selected species.
	Identify the contents of the vertebral canal  : spinal cord, spinal nerves, meninges (mainly dura mater), cauda equina.
	Explain the segmental arrangement of the spinal cord and its relationship to the vertebrae on the basis of growth of the two.
	Describe the formation of a typical spinal nerve.
	Demonstrate understanding of the basic concepts of injuries to the vertebral column including disc prolapse and their consequences for the spinal cord and spinal nerves.
	Correlate properties of white fibrocartilage with its function in the vertebral column.
	Recognise ligaments of the vertebral column as types of connective tissue. (Special reference to ligamenta flava).
Body Wall and Coelomic cavity	Explain the terms paraxial, intermediate and lateral plate mesoderm.
	Define 'somite' and describe its subdivisions.
	List the derivatives of sclerotome, dermatome and myotome.
	Describe the formation of epaxial and hypaxial musculature.
	Correlate the distribution of spinal nerves with derivatives of somites.
	Describe the formation of coelomic cavity by splitting of mesoderm.
	Name the parts of the coelomic cavity.	Details of pleura, pericardium and peritoneum listed separately.
	Correlate the development of body wall and coelomic cavities with the general plan of thorax and abdomen.
	Name the major muscles of the thoracic and abdominal walls with their nerve supply.
Nervous Tissue and PNS	Describe the parts of a typical neuron and correlate with the functioning of a neuron.
	Outline the structure and function of myelin sheath.
	Name neuroglial cells and state their functions.
	Outline the general plan of the peripheral nervous system (cranial and spinal nerves, sensory and autonomic ganglia, concept of “distribution” of a peripheral nerve).
	Describe the histological structure of a peripheral nerve.
	Recognise and identify the connective tissue layers associated with a nerve. (Epi- and perineurium, endoneurium may be difficult to identify.)
	Recognise appearance of myelinated nerve fibres in cross section and identify them.
	Describe nodes of Ranvier and the relationship between Schwann cells and nerve fibres by illustrating with a simple line diagram.
	Distinguish between neuron bodies and nerve fibres in sections of ganglia.
	Distinguish between white and grey matter in sections of the spinal cord and correlate with the structure of neurons.
	Recognise motor neurons in the ventral grey horn of a section of the spinal cord.
Thorax - Walls, cavity and viscera	Identify the components of the skeleton of the thorax. (Features of thoracic vertebrae have been dealt with in the Vertebral Column Lab. Regarding ribs : Core material is identification of the parts of a typical rib including the costal groove, identification of the first rib, the concept of ribs being attached to the sternum directly or indirectly, 11th and 12th ribs, the concept of costal margin.)	Essential preliminary : Review of cardiovascular and respiratory systems from HB 102.
	Identify the muscular components of the thoracic wall.
	Recognise the mediastinum and the relative positions of the thoracic viscera.
	Recognise that some structure pass through the entire extent of the thorax while some do not.
	Identify the sympathetic chain and recognise its ganglia.
	Appreciate the surface anatomy of the thorax.
	Describe the position of the heart in the thorax.
	Label, in a diagram the borders and salient external features of the heart : apex, base and diaphragmatic surface, coronary sulcus, auricles, atria and ventricles and the great vessels.
	Identify in the right atrium : smooth part, crista terminalis, pectinate muscles, openings on the SVC, IVC and coronary sinus.
	Identify, in a specimen or a model, the four valves.
	Identify coronary arteries.
	Describe the conducting system of the heart.
	Distinguish between right and left lungs on the basis of fissures and lobes.
	Explain the concept of bronchopulmonary segment.
	Describe the difference between visceral and parietal pleura.
	Describe the major regions of parietal pleura including costodiaphragmatic recess and cardiophrenic angles.
	Identify major structures in the mediastinum : arch of aorta and its branches, trachea and principal bronchi, oesophagus, superior vena cava, sympathetic chain. Vagus and phrenic nerves.
	Identify the muscular part and the central tendon of the diaphragm.
	Describe the role of muscles of respiration.
	Outline the attachment of the diaphragm, including the crura.
Histology - Heart, Blood vessels	Recapitulate the histology of muscle tissue.	HB 101
	Explain the concept of “muscle fibre”.
	Describe the histological structure of cardiac muscle with special reference to features which distinguish it from skeletal muscle.
	Explain the concept of functional syncytium and the role of the intercalated disc.
	Describe the conducting tissue of the heart.
	Outline the organisation of tissue elements in the heart.
	Describe the general structural plan of blood vessels with reference to tissue elements and function.
	Compare and contrast the structure of different types of blood vessels, with functional correlation (elastic and muscular arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins).	Recap from HB 102, CVS.
	Identify cardiac muscle in histological sections and photomicrographs, based on observable histological features.
	*Recognise conducting tissue of the heart (Purkinje fibres &c).
	Identify the layers of vascular wall (tunica intima, media and adventitia).
	Distinguish elastic tissue from muscle in specially stained preparations of blood vessels.
	Describe, compare and contrast the structure of elastic and muscular arteries and veins.
	Identify smaller blood vessels (arterioles, venules and capillaries) in tissue sections.
Development of the Heart	Describe the cardiogenic area and its migration in keeping with head folding.
	Describe the establishment of circulation and the arterial and venous ends of the heart.
	Describe the folding of the heart tube and name its parts.
	Explain the functional requirements of the foetal heart and the final goal of partitioning.
	Outline the development of the interatrial septum.
	Name the components of the interventricular septum.
	Outline the need for, and the implications of, changes in circulation at birth.
	*Understand the meachanisms and implications of some congenital anomalies of the heart in elementary terms.
	Correlate the development and gross anatomical features of the heart.
Abdominal Wall and Cavity	Outline the divisions of abdomen into regions and illustrate with a simple line diagram.
	Identify the bony landmarks of the abdominal wall. (Details of the pelvis not required at this stage).
	Recognise and explain the difference between anterolateral and posterior abdominal walls.
	Identify the muscles of the anterolateral abdominal wall.
	Explain the presence of the inguinal canal in both sexes.
	Identify the psoas and the quadratus lumborum muscles.
	Outline the nerve supply of the abdominal wall.
Abdominal Viscera	Name and identify the parts/organs of the abdominal portion of the digestive system.	See separate list for the depth expected in specific areas of these objectives. Click on the linked words in the objectives. The exact line between Weeks 6 and 7 lectures and labs will depend on the pace of learning. Recap from Digestive System, HB 102 helpful.
	Name and identify the three major arteries of the abdominal gut and the organs they supply.
	Describe the major features of the peritoneal cavity, mesenteries and peritoneal folds.
	Describe and identify the salient external and internal features of the stomach and intestines.
	Correlate anatomical features of abdominal organs with their functions.
	Explain the concept of primary and secondary retroperitoneal organs.
	Describe and identify the salient features of the kidneys, ureters and other retroperitoneal structures.
	Describe the gross anatomy of the liver, biliary apparatus, duodenum and pancreas and identify them.
Histology - Skeletal and Smooth muscle.	Describe the microanatomy of skeletal muscle as an organ (muscle, fasciculi, muscle fibres, connective tissue elements, nerves and blood vessels).
	Describe the histological structure of skeletal muscle fibres.
	Outline the unltrastructure of skeletal muscle and correlate with muscle contraction.
	Outline the structure of muscle spindles and their function.
	Explain the concept of motor unit and its functional significance.
	Outline the structure and function of neuromuscular junction.
	Describe the histological structure of smooth muscle.
	Compare and contrast the structure and function of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle cells.
	Identify the features of skeletal muscle organisation – muscle fibres, fascicles and connective tissue layers.
	Identify muscle spindles.
	Identify smooth muscle in appropriate sections.
	Distinguish between skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.
	Distinguish between muscle tissue and connective tissue in sections with appropriate staining.
Histology - Epithelium and epithelial organs	Describe the essential structural and functional features of epithelium : Cellularity, basement membrane, avascularity, cell junctions, correlation of cell size and cell organelles with function, the role of supporting connective tissue, epithelium as a “barrier tissue”.	Preliminary reading from HB 101 (tissues and skin) essential.
	Name the types of epithelial tissue with examples of their locations and their specific functions.
	Outline the structural specialisations and their functions for each of the subtypes of epithelial tissue.
	Describe the structure of the epidermis, with reference to its layers and their functions.
	Describe the structure of the dermis and the functional role it plays in the skin.
	Outline the sensory neural structures in the skin.
	Describe the structure and function of the glands of the skin.
	Outline the structure and function of the hair and nail.
	Explain the distinction between thick and thin skin.
	Outline the classification of glands on the basis of their structure and function.
	Give examples of different types of glands.
	Identify types of epithelial tissue as seen in histological sections of various organs. (Details of microanatomy of organs and identification of organs is not an expected outcome as this fits in with ANHB 2214. however, given the name of the organ the students should be able to correlate the appearance and function of tissue components.)
	Illustrate, with simple line diagrams, cross sectional appearance of epithelia.
	Identify the structural components of skin and appendages.
	Identify sections of salivary glands and pancreas.
	Identify serous, mucous and mixed acini, components of duct systems and stromal elements in the sections mentioned.
	Identify glandular structures in the skin.
	*Recognise glandular structures in the stomach and intestines.
Integration - Tissues of the body	Correlate types of epithelia in abdominal organs (especially hollow viscera) with their function.
	Recapitulate structure and function of primary tissue types with reference to the general plan of the structure of hollow organs (microanatomical details of individual organs not essential).
	Explain the terms parenchyma and stroma.
	Explain the relevance of stromal architecture to functional divisions of a solid organ.
	Explain terms used in describing the duct system of glands in the light of structural organisation.
	Compare the development of the lung with that of a gland and explain the developmental stages in the lung.
	Compare and contrast the development of the kidney with that of a gland. (This outcome may be difficult to achieve until the next week due to timetable constraints this year.)
	§ Appreciate the gross anatomical and histological context of the use of the terms lobes and lobules.
	*Be aware that the term lobe may be used somewhat loosely in some cases e.g. in the liver.
Embryology - GIT and RS	Outline the formation of the endodermal gut tube with surrounding splanchnopleuric mesoderm; and the division of the tube into foregut, midgut and hindgut.
	List the derivative organs from the three divisions of the gut tube.
	Explain the relative positions of the derivatives of the abdominal gut on the basis of the rotation of gut.
	Outline the development of the liver, gall bladder and pancreas.
	Correlate the blood supply of the abdominal gut with development.
	Outline the formation of the major divisions of the peritoneal cavity and the folds of peritoneum (falciform ligament, lesser omentum, greater omentum and splenic ligaments). Details of development not expected, the concept of the liver and spleen developing in the ventral and dorsal mesogastria respectively is adequate.
	Explain mesentery, visceral and parietal peritoneum on developmental basis.
	Outline the development of the respiratory system as an offshoot of the gut tube.
	Compare the development of the respiratory tree with that of a gland.
	Correlate the development of the anal canal with its salient gross anatomical features – blood supply, venous drainage, lymphatic drainage and nature of nerve supply (visceral / somatic).
Immune-Lymphatic system	Outline the molecular, cellular, histological and gross anatomical perspectives of the defence systems of the body.	Preliminary : Immune system from HB 102 essential.
	Describe the features of types of white blood cells.
	Define “antigen” and “antibody”.
	Distinguish between nonspecific and specific defence mechanisms.
	Describe tissue fluid formation and lymph circulation.
	Describe the essentials of the immune reaction – antigen recognition, antigen presenting cells, T and B lymphocytes, cell-mediated and humoral immunity.
	Outline inflammation as a protective response.
	Describe the histological features of lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen and thymus.
	Outline the plan of lymphatic drainage of the body and explain its significance.
	Identify, in specimens and charts, major lymph node groups of the body.
	Recognise lymphatics and lymph nodes in suitable radiological images.
	Identify histological sections of lymph node, spleen, tonsil and thymus.
	Compare the major microanatomical features of these structures.
	Correlate the histological structure with functional aspects as learnt from the lectures.
Imaging	Outline the methods of imaging – conventional X-rays – plain and contrast, CT scans, MRI images, ultrasonography. (Passing mention of newer methods like PET, Functional MRI – more relevant to neurosciences). This outcome is largely theoretical, with correlation in interpretation of images.
	Identify anatomical features (core material as stated in various gross anatomy outcomes) in images of the vertebral column, thorax, abdomen and pelvis.
	Demonstrate understanding of the principles of imaging with special reference to image densities and contrast media.
Pelvis	Outline the plan of the bony pelvis and the pelvic walls including pelvic diaphragm.
	List the major differences between the male and female bony pelves (see detailed notes).	See detailed notes.
	Outline the general plan of the male and female pelvic organs.
	Outline the general plan of male and female external genitalia.
	Correlate the major anatomical features of the female pelvis with its suitability as the birth canal.	See detailed notes.
	List the common variations from the gynaecoid type of the female pelvis.
	Identify the features of the bony pelvis relevant to pelvic anatomy (features relevant to the lower limb excluded).
	Identify the ligaments of the pelvis.
	Identify the major differences between male and female bony pelves (see detailed notes referred to with the lecture).	See detailed notes.
	Identify the muscles of the walls of the pelvis (obturator internus, piriformis and pelvic diaphragm) in prosections/models.
	Identify the rectum, anal canal, anorectal junction and the anal sphincters on models.	Essential preliminary : Relevant gross anatomy of digestive, urinary and reproductive systems, HB 101 and 102.
	Identify the ureters, urinary bladder and the urethra in both sexes (models).
	Identify the ductus deferens, prostate, seminal vesicles and ejaculatory ducts in a model of a male pelvis.
	Identify the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus and vagina in a model of the female pelvis.
	Identify the parts of the uterus and the angles of version and flexion.
	Identify radiological features seen on a hysterosalpingogram.
Gametogenesis	Outline the essential steps in gametogenesis in the male and the female.	Essential preliminary : "Meiosis" and relevant areas of "Reproduction" from HB 101.
	Explain the genetic and evolutionary significance of meiotic cells division.
	Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and öogenesis.
	Outline the histological structure of the testis and ovary as relevant to gametogenesis.
	Identify seminiferous tubule as the structural unit of spermatogenesis.
	Recognise spermatogonia as forming the outer layer of seminiferous epithelium.
	Recognise spermatocytes and the variety of appearances of their nuclei.
	Identify spermatids / spermatozoa in the inner layers.
	Summarise the functions of supporting cells.
	Identify ovarian follicles at various stages (elementary level, see detailed notes).
	Identify zona pellucida.
Embryology - UGS	List the derivatives of the intermediate mesoderm.
	Explain the terms pronephros, mesonephros and metanephros.
	Summarise the fate of the three stages of kidney development mentioned above.
	Describe the development of the definitive kidney with reference to the uriniferous and collecting portions.
	List mesonephric derivatives in the human body.
	Compare and contrast the development of the male and female internal reproductive organs.
	List the factors influencing the development of male and female internal reproductive organs.
	Outline the parallels in the development of external reproductive organs.
	Comment on the phylogenetic aspects of the development of the urinary system.
Phylogeny and Ontogeny	Debate the validity of the statement “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”, citing the examples of development of the kidneys and the heart.
Overview of development - Foetal Anatomy	Identify, in sections of human and rat foetuses, selected features of axial, body wall and visceral structures (examinable). These include :
	Developing vertebra
	Spinal cord, spinal nerve, dorsal root ganglion
	Limb buds
	Developing ribs and wall muscles (no details)
	Heart and its chambers
	Lungs
	Trachea, oesophagus, aorta
	Liver
Histology - Skeletal tissues	Recapitulate the features of cartilage structure.	Recap from W3L2.
	Recapitulate the structure and formation of bone.	HB 101
	Describe the overall architectural pattern of mature bone as a tissue : periosteum, lamellated structure, osteocytes, lacunae and canaliculi, osteons as units of bone histology, vascularity.
	Describe the special features of bone matrix – fibres and their arrangement, mineralisation.
	Describe the structure and function of osteocytes and osteoclasts.
	Compare and contrast the histological structure and function of cartilage and bone.
	Explain the concepts of bone as a tissue and bones as organs.
	Outline the process of chondrogenesis.
	Explain interstitial and appositional growth of cartilage .	Recapitulation from, and reinforcement of  W3L2.
	Distinguish between intramembranous and endochondral ossification; describe the structure and function of osteoblasts.
	Describe and explain the process of endochondral ossification.
	Correlate the histological aspects of bone formation with gross anatomy with reference to the following :
	Listing bones which develop by the two processes of ossification.
	Identifying the zones of an epiphyseal growth plate.
	Bone remodeling in the metaphysis, following injury and at sites of pressure or traction.
	Blood supply of a long bone and directions of nutrient arteries.
	Determination of bone age (no numerical details).
	Explanation of the terms compact bone, spongy/cancellous bone, woven/non-lamellar bone, lamellar/mature bone, osteoid with functional correlation where possible.
	Distinguish between decalcified and ground sections of bone.
	Identify in appropriate sections or photomicrographs : lamellae, osteons, osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi, periosteum, endosteum, Haversian and Volkmann’s canals. (Osteoblasts and osteoclasts optional in this lab as they are more relevant in the next.)
	Identify, in appropriate sections, the features of a synovial joint and revise other types of connective tissues.
	Identify a section showing intramembranous ossification. Features include undifferentiated mesenchyme, osteoid, bony spicules, osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
	Identify the process of endochondral ossification in suitable sections. Features include : zones of hyaline cartilage undergoing ossification, osteoblasts, osteoclasts.
Articular System	Recapitulate the classification of joints and the basic structural features of various types of joints.	HB 101, Lab – Bones and Joints.
	Describe the varieties of fibrous joints with examples.
	Explain the functional role of fontanelles.
	Describe the structure of cartilaginous joints.
	Distinguish between the functions of synchondroses and symphyses.	In conjunction with Lecture 2 this week.
	Describe the general structure of a synovial joint.
	Outline structural and functional classifications of synovial joints with suitable examples.	See detailed notes.
	Outline the factors involved in the stability of synovial joints.
	Explain terms used in describing joint movements.
	Identify sutures and fontanelles.
	Recognise the inferior tibiofibular joint as a syndesmosis.
	Identify intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis.
	Identify structural features of synovial joints in wet and plastinated specimens.
	Recognise the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, superior radioulnar, atlantoaxial, sternoclavicular and intervertebral facet joints as examples of subtypes of synovial joints and some of the special features. (Anatomical details of individual joints excluded).
	Recognise joints and joint spaces of radiographic images.
Upper and Lower limbs	Outline the evolution of limbs from fishes to mammals.
	Describe the general pattern of limb anatomy – girdle, proximal and distal segments, hand/foot with the major bones and joints.
	Outline the structural and functional characteristics of human limbs in the light of erect posture and bipedal locomotion.
	Describe the pattern of surfaces and muscle groups in correlation with the development of the limbs.
	List the spinal nerves forming limb plexuses.
	List some examples of ventral and dorsal nerves and muscles in the limbs.
	Identify major bones of the limbs and their features as relevant to this unit.	See detailed notes
	Identify major muscle groups and recognise them as muscles of dorsal or ventral compartments.
	List some features illustrating the similarity of pattern of upper and lower limb organisation.